The Guptas Online Test 11th History Lesson 3 Questions in English

In the period from c. 300 to 700 CE the Gupta kingdom emerged as a great power and achieved the political unification of a large part of the Indian subcontinent.

Feudalism as an institution began to take root during this period. With an effective guild system and overseas trade, the Gupta economy boomed.

The living standards of upper classes reached a peak. Education, art and study of science progressed, but the feudal system of governance put people in some form of hardship.

There are three types of sources for reconstructing the history of the Gupta period. I. Literary sources 2. Epigraphical Sources 3. Numismatic Sources

Devichandraguptam and Mudrarakshasam (Sanskrit play) by Vishakadutta provide details about the rise of the Guptas

The Chinese traveller Fa Hien account for literature source of Gupta kingdom

Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription – achievements of Chandragupta I.

Allahabad Pillar inscription – describing Samudragupta’s personality and achievements.

Allahabad Pillar inscription – describing Samudragupta’s personality and achievements in 33 lines composed by Harisena and engraved in Sanskrit in Nagari script.

Chandragupta I, who was the third ruler of the Gupta dynasty married Kumaradevi, a Lichchavi prince. The marriage is mentioned in the records of his successors with pride indicating that that royal connection would have contributed to the rise of Guptas.

The first ruler of the Gupta Empire was Sri Gupta (240–280 CE) who was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha (280–319 CE). Chandragupta I, the son of Ghatotkacha, ruled from 319CE and is considered to be the first great king of the Gupta Empire.

Chandragupta I, appointed his son Samudragupta to succeed him in 335 CE. A lengthy eulogy on him, inscribed on an Ashokan pillar, suggests that he was claiming the legacy of the Mauryan kingdom.

Nine kings of the western half of the Ganges Plain were violently uprooted. Four northern kings were conquered mainly in the area around Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh

Nine Republics in Rajasthan, including the Malavas and Yaudheyas, were forced to accept Gupta’s suzerainty.

The foreign kings, such as the Daivaputra Shahanushahi (a Kushana title), the Sakas and the king of Lanka also paid tribute, as mentioned in the eulogy.

Samudragupta’s campaign broke the power of the tribal republics in Rajastan regions that led to repeated invasions from the Huns.

The relationship with Kushanas is not certain, but with regard to Lanka, its ruler Meghavarman sent presents and requested permission from Samudragupta to build a Buddhist monastery at Gaya.

Samudragupata performed the horse sacrifice ritual to proclaim his military conquests.

Samudragupta patronised scholars and poets like Harisena and thus promoted Sanskrit literature. Though an ardent follower of Vaishnavism, he also patronised the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu.

Chandragupta I, held the title of maharaja-adhiraja (great king over other kings). His imperial position is inferred from the records of others.

Samudragupta coins bear the insignia of him playing the vina (lute).

Chandragupta II named after his grandfather, Chandragupta II was a capable ruler, who ruled for 40 years from c. 375 to 415 CE. He came to power after a succession struggle with his brother Rama Gupta.

Chandragupta II is also known as Vikramaditya.

With the capital at Pataliputra, Chandragupta II extended the limits of the Gupta Empire by conquest and matrimonial alliances.

Chandragupta II married off his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince, who ruled the strategic lands of Deccan. This alliance was highly useful when he proceeded against the Saka rulers of western India.

Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat by defeating the Saka rulers who had reigned for about four centuries in the region.

The kingdom’s prosperity grew out of its trade links with Roman Empire.

Chandragupta II other names (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama, Devagupta, Devaraja, Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya and Sakari.

As a lover of poetry and music, Samudragupta was given the title “Kaviraja”.

Chandragupta II court had nine jewels or navaratnas, that is, nine eminent people in various fields of art, literature and science. This included the great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, the Sanskrit scholar Harisena, the lexicographer Amarasimha, and the physician Dhanvantari.

Fa Hien, the Buddhist scholar from China, visited India during Chandragupta II reign. He records the prosperity of the Gupta Empire.

Chandragupta II was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins. His rule thus formed the peak period of Gupta’s territorial expansion.

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumara Gupta I, who founded the Nalanda University.

The last great king of the Gupta dynasty, Skanda Gupta, was the son of Kumara Gupta I.

Kumara Gupta was also called Sakraditya

Kumara Gupta was able to repulse an attack by the Huns, but the recurrence of Huns’ invasion strained his empire’s coffers. The Gupta Empire declined after the death of Skanda Gupta in 467 CE.

The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnu Gupta who reigned from 540 to 550 CE.

During the Gupta age, political hierarchies can be identified by the titles adopted. Kings assumed titles such as maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka and parameshvara.

Samudragupta is compared to Purusha (Supreme Being) in the Allahabad inscription. These assertions can be seen as reflections of an attempt to claim divine status by the king. They were also connected with gods through epithets such as parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and parama-bhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna).

The term “kumaramatya” occurs in six Vaishali seals, which suggests that this title represented a high-ranking officer associated with an office (adikarana) of his own.

Harisena, composer of the Allahabad prashasti (inscriptions of praise), was a kumaramatya, sandhivigrahika and mahadandanayaka, and was the son of Dhruvabhuti, a mahadandanayaka.

The Allahabad prashasti refers to an assembly or council, presumably of ministers, which was known as the Sabha. The Gupta king was assisted by a council of mantrins (ministers)

High-ranking officials were called dandanayakas, and mahadandanayakas were high-ranking judicial or military officers. One of the seals mentions a mahadandanayaka named Agnigupta.

The Allahabad prashasti refers to three mahadandanayakas. All these suggest that these posts were hereditary by nature.

The various high-ranking functionaries included the sandhivigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war), who seems to have been a high-ranking officer in charge of contact and correspondence with other states, including initiating wars and concluding alliances and treaties.

The Gupta Empire was divided into provinces known as deshas or bhuktis.

The deshas or bhuktis were administered by governors who were usually designated as uparikas. The uparika was directly appointed by the king and he, in turn, frequently appointed the head of the district administration and the district board.

The Eran pillar inscription of Budhagupta, dated Gupta year 165 CE, refers to maharaja Surashmichandra as a lokpala, governing the land between the Kalinndi and Narmada rivers. Lokpala here seems to refer to a provincial governor.

Uparika carried on the administration “with the enjoyment of the rule consisting of elephants, horses and soldiers”, indicating his control over the military machinery as well.

The provinces of the Gupta Empire were divided into districts known as visayas, which were controlled by officers known as vishyapatis. The vishyapatis seems to have been generally appointed by the provincial governor

The administrative units below the district level included clusters of settlements known variously as vithi, bhumi, pathaka and peta. There are references to officials known as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras.

At the village level, villagers chose functionaries such as gramika and gramadhyaksha.

The Damodarpur copper plate of the reign of Budhagupta mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members) headed by the mahattara.

The Sanchi inscription of the time of Chandragupta II mentions the panchmandali, which may have been a corporate body.

Seals and inscriptions mention military designations such as baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry). A Vaishali seal mentions the ranabhandagar-adhikarana, which is the office of the military storehouse.

The standard term “senapati” does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but the term could be found in some Vakataka epigraphs.

The chief of the palace guards was known as mahapratiara

Another Vaishali seal mentions the adhikarana (office) of the dandapashika, which may have been a district-level police office.

The superintendent of the royal kitchen was known as the khadyatapakita.

The Guptas Military system of espionage included spies known as dutakas. The ayuktakas were another cadre of high-ranking officers.

Nitisara, written by Kamandaka, is a text like Arthasastra. It emphasises the importance of the royal treasury and mentions various sources of revenue. The many ambitious military campaigns of kings like Samudragupta must have been financed through revenue surpluses.

The akshapataladhikrita was the keeper of royal records. Gupta inscriptions mention the terms klipta, bali, udranga, uparikara, and iranyavesti meant forced labour.

The crops cultivated during the Gupta period were rice, wheat, barley, peas, lentils, pulses, sugarcane and oil seeds.

From Kalidasa, we come to know that the south was famous for pepper and cardamom. Varahamihira gives elaborate advice on the plantation of fruit trees.

Apart from the state and individual cultivators, Brahmins, Buddhists and Jain sanghas brought waste lands under cultivation when they were donated to them as religious endowments.

The Paharpur copper plate inscription indicates that the king was the sole proprietor of the land. Even when he made land grants, he reserved his prerogatives over it.

As stated in Paharpur plates, an officer called ustapala maintained records of all the land transactions in the district and the village accountant preserved records of land in the village.

The land Grants made to feudatories of Guptas is known as Secular grants.

A land grant in favour of a Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants for the repair and worship of temples is known as Devagrahara grants. Agrahara grants are given to Brahmins, it was perpetual, hereditary and tax free.

Nivi dharma – Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent in North and Central India and Bengal.

From the Narada Smriti, we understand that there were two kinds of dykes: the bardhya, which protected the field from floods, and the khara, which served the purpose of irrigation.

To prevent inundation, jalanirgamah (drains) were constructed, which is mentioned by Amarasimha. Canals were constructed not only from rivers but also from tanks and lakes.

The most famous lake was the Sudarsana lake at the foot of Girnar Hills in Gujarat.

The practice of lease-holding reduced the permanent tenants to tenants at will (which means tenants could be evicted without notice). The farmers were required to pay various taxes.

Mining and metallurgy were one of the most flourishing industries during the Gupta period. Amarasimha, Varahamihira and Kalidasa make frequent mention of the existence of mines.

The rich deposits of iron ore from Bihar and copper from Rajasthan were mined extensively during this period.

The list of metals used apart from iron were gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, bronze, bell-metal, mica, manganese, antimony, red chalk (sanssilajata) and red arsenic.

Blacksmiths were next only to agriculturists in importance in the society. Metal was used for the manufacture of various domestic implements, utensils and weapons.

The most important and visible evidence of the high stage of development in metallurgy is the Mehrauli Iron Pillar of King Chandra in the Qutb Minar Complex in Delhi, identified with Chandragupta II. This monolith iron pillar has lasted through the centuries without rusting.

Bhoga – Periodic supply of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which the village had to provide to the king.

Bali – A voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later became compulsory. It was an oppressive tax.

Bhaga – King’s customary share of the produce normally amounting to one-sixth of the produce paid by cultivators.

The contribution of traders to the soundness of the Gupta economy is quite impressive. Two distinctive types of traders called sresti and sarthavaha existed.

The sarthavaha was a caravan trader who carried his goods to different places for profitable sale. Sresti was usually settled at a particular place and enjoyed an eminent position by virtue of his wealth and influence in the commercial life and administration of the place.

Guild is a society or other organisation of people with common interests or an association of merchants. Guilds continued as the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial enterprise.

Guilds remained virtually autonomous in their internal organisation, and the government respected their laws. These laws were generally drafted by a larger body, the corporation of guilds, of which each guild was a member.

The Narada Smriti and Brihaspati Smritis describe the organisation and activities of guilds. They mention that the guild had a chief and two, three or five executive officers.

The Brihaspati Smriti refers to guilds rendering justice to their members and suggests that these decisions should, by and large, be approved by the king. The inscription also records that the chief of the guilds played an important role in the district-level administrative bodies.

In Brihaspati Smriti there is also mention of joint corporate bodies of merchant-bankers, caravan merchants and artisans. The guilds also acted as banks. The names of donors are mentioned in this inscription.

Usury (the lending of money at an exorbitant rate of interest) was in practice during the Gupta period. The detailed discussion in the sources of that period indicates that money was used, borrowed and loaned for profit.

Fa Hien refers to Tamralipti in Bengal as an important centre of trade on the eastern coast. Fahien describes the perils of the sea route between India and China. The goods traded from India were rare gems, pearls, fine textiles and aromatics.

There were many ports that facilitated trade in the western coast of India such as Calliena (Kalyan), Chaul port in ruin sixty kilometres south of Mumbai, and the markets of Male (Malabar), Mangarouth (Mangalore), Salopatana, Nalopatana and Pandopatana on the Malabar coast.

The ports and towns were connected with those of Persia, Arabia and Byzantium on the one hand and Sri Lanka, China and Southeast Asia on the other.

The Guptas issued many gold coins but comparatively few silver and copper coins. However, the post-Gupta period saw a decline in the circulation of gold coins.

At Mathura, the people are numerous and happy; they do not have to register their household. Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay a portion of the grain from it. Criminals are fined both lightly and heavily depending on the circumstances.

The origin of Huns is not definitely known. According to Roman historian Tacitus, they were a barbarian tribe living near Caspian Sea and contributed to the fall of Roman Empire.

The inhabitants of Pataliputra are rich and prosperous and vie with one another in the practice of benevolence. In the cities, the Vaisya families establish houses for dispensing charity and medicines.

Huns organised under Attila and were known for their savagery and bestiality in Europe.

One branch of Huns, known as white Huns, moved towards India from Central Asia and their invasion began about a hundred years after the Kushanas.

The most notable groups of the rock-cut caves are found at Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra) and Bagh (Madhya Pradesh). The Udayagiri caves (Orissa) are also of this type.

The second group of temples shows many of the characteristic features of the Dravida style

A good specimen of stone sculpture is the well-known erect Buddha from Sarnath. Of the puranic images, perhaps the most impressive is the great Boar (Varaha) at the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri.

The structural temples have the following attributes: (1) flat-roofed square temples; (2) flat-roofed square temple with a vimana (second storey); (3) square temple with a curvilinear tower (shikara) above; (4) rectangular temple; and (5) circular temple.

The importance of the third group of temples lies in the innovation of a shikhara that caps the sanctum sanctorum, the main feature of the Nagara style.

Stupas were also built in large numbers but the best are found at Samat (Uttar Pradesh), Ratnagiri (Orissa) and Mirpur Khas (Sind).

A copper image of the Buddha about eighteen feet high at Nalanda in Bihar and the Sultanganj Buddha of seven-and-a-half feet in height.

The art of painting seems to have been in popular demand in the Gupta period than the art of stone sculptures. The mural paintings of this period are found at Ajanta, Bagh, Badami and other places

The art of Ajanta and Bagh shows the Madhyadesa School of painting at its best.

Gupta pottery remains found at Ahchichhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur and Bashar afford proof of excellence of pottery. The most distinctive class of pottery of this period is the “red ware”.

Smritis are religious texts covering a wide range of subjects such as ethics, politics, culture and art. Dharmasastras and puranas form the core of this body of literature.

The Guptas made Sanskrit the official language and all their epigraphic records were written in it. The period saw the last phase of the Smriti literature.

The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini who wrote Ashtadhyayi and Patanjali who wrote Mahabhashya on the topic.

Gupta period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosa, a thesaurus in Sanskrit, by Amarasimha.

A Buddhist scholar from Bengal, Chandrogomia, composed a book on grammar named Chandravyakaranam.

The Puranas, as we know them in their present form, were composed during this time. They are the legends as recorded by the Brahmins.

There are Eighteen major puranas are listed. Of them the well-known are: Brahma Purana, Padma Purana, Vishnu Purana, Skanda Purana, Shiva Maha Purana, Markendeya Purana, Agni Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Matsya Purana and Shrimad Bhagavat Purana.

The earliest Buddhist works are in Pali, but in the later phase, Sanskrit came to be used to a great extent. Most of the works are in prose with verse passages in mixed Sanskrit.

The first regular Buddhist work on logic was written by Vasubandhu.

Arya Deva and Arya Asanga of the Gupta period are the most notable writers.

The Jaina canonical literature at first took shape in Prakrit dialects. Sanskrit came to be the medium later. Within a short time, Jainism produced many great scholars and by their efforts the Hindu itihasa and puranas were recast in Jaina versions to popularise their doctrines.

Vasubandhu’s disciple, Dignaga, was also the author of many learned Buddhist works.

Vimala produced a Jaina version of Ramayana. Siddasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas.

Samudragupta himself had established his fame as Kaviraja. It is widely believed that his court was adorned by the celebrated navaratnas like Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Visakadatta and Dhanvantri.

Kalidasa’s famous dramas are Sakunthalam, Malavikagnimitram and Vikramaurvashiyam. Mrichchhakatika was written by Sudraka.

The Mudraraksasa and Devichandraguptam was written by Visakhadatta.

An interesting feature of the dramas of this period is that while the elite spoke in Sanskrit, the common people spoke Prakrit.

In Prakrit, there was patronage outside the court circle. The Gupta age witnessed the evolution of many Prakrit forms such as Suraseni used in Mathura and its vicinity, Ardh Magadhi spoken in Awadh and Bundelkhand and Magadhi in modern Bihar

Nalanda was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a large Buddhist monastery in the ancient kingdom of Magadha in India.

Nalanda flourished under the patronage of the Gupta Empire in the fifth and sixth centuries and later under Harsha, the emperor of Kanauj. The liberal cultural traditions inherited from the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth and prosperity until the ninth century

At its peak, the Nalanda attracted scholars and students from near and far with some travelling all the way from Tibet, China, Korea and Central Asia. Archaeological findings also confirm the contact with the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a monastery in the complex.

Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed by an army of the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate under Bakhtiyar Khalji in c. 1200 CE. While some sources note that the Mahavihara continued to function in a makeshift fashion for a little longer, it was eventually abandoned and forgotten.

Systematic excavations commenced in 1915, which unearthed 11 monasteries and 6 brick temples situated on 12 hectares (30 acres) of land. A trove of sculptures, coins, seals and inscriptions have also been discovered since then and all of them are on display in the Nalanda Archaeological Museum situated nearby.

Nalanda is now a notable tourist destination and a part of the Buddhist tourism circuit. Recently, the government of India, in cooperation with other South and South-east Asian countries, has revived this university.

In the Surya Siddanta, Aryabhatta (belonging to late fifth and early sixth century CE) examined the true cause of the solar eclipses.

Aryabhata is also the author of Aryabhattiyam, which deals with arithmetic, geometry and algebra.

Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita (sixth century CE) is an encyclopaedia of astronomy, physical geography, botany and natural history.

Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita (sixth century CE) is an encyclopaedia of astronomy, physical geography, botany and natural history. His other works are Panch Siddhantika and Brihat Jataka.

Brahmagupta (late sixth and early seventh century CE) is author of important works on mathematics and astronomy, namely Brahmasphuta-siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka.

Metallic preparations for the purpose of medicine and references to the use of mercury and iron by Varahamihira and others indicate that much progress was made in chemistry. The Navanitakam was a medical work, which is a manual of recipes, formulation and prescriptions.

Hastyayurveda or the veterinary science authored by Palakapya attests to the advances made in medical science during the Gupta period.

The royal share of merchandise brought into a town or harbour by merchants is known as Sulka. Hence it can be equated with the customs and tolls.

Udianga - Either a sort of police tax for the maintenance of police stations or a water tax. Hence, it was also an extra tax.

Hiranya - Literally, it means tax payable on gold coins, but in practice, it was probably the king’s share of certain crops paid in kind.

Vata-Bhuta - Different kinds of cess for maintenance of rites for the winds (vata) and the spirits (bhuta).

The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550 CE. Internal fighting and dissensions among the royal family led to its collapse.

Vakataka king Harishena conquered Malwa and Gujarat from the Guptas.

During Skanda Gupta’s reign, the grandson of Chandragupta II, the Huns invaded northwest India. He was successful in repulsing the Huns, but consequently his empire was drained of financial resources.

In the sixth century CE, the Huns occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab and Gandhara.

As the Hun invasion weakened the Gupta hold in the country, independent rulers emerged all over the north like Yasodharman of Malwa, the Maukharis of Uttar Pradesh, the Maitrakas in Saurashtra and others in Bengal. In time, the Gupta Empire came to be restricted to only Magadha.

Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta Dynasty.

After the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta kingdom emerged as a great power