Later Cholas And Pandyas Online Test 11th History Lesson 6 Questions in English

After the eclipse of the Chola kingdom, Pandyas began their rule in the Vaigai river basin at Madurai wielded tremendous power during the 14th century.

Trade expansion overseas continued in the Pandya rule. Tirunelveli region, which was part of the Pandyan kingdom, exported grain, cotton, cotton cloth and bullocks to the Malabar Coast and had trade contacts with West and Southeast Asia.

Pandya kings produced a cultural heritage by synthesizing the religious, cultural and political elements, and it differed totally with the assumed homogeneity of classical age of Guptas.

Records available to us after the Sangam Age show that the Cholas remained as subordinates to the Pallavas in the Kaveri region.

The re-emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya (850–871 CE) conquering the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar. He built the city of Thanjavur and established the Chola kingdom in 850.

Historians refer to them as the Later Cholas or Imperial Cholas. In the copper plate documents of his successors that are available the Cholas trace their ancestry to the Karikalan, the most well-known of the Cholas of the Sangam age.

Vijayalaya illustrious successors starting from Parantaka I (907–955) to Kulothunga III (1163–1216) brought glory and fame to the Cholas. Parantaka Chola set the tone for expansion of the territory and broadened the base of its governance.

Rajaraja I (985–1014), the builder of the most beautiful Brihadishvarar temple at Thanjavur, and his son Rajendra I (1012–1044),whose naval operation extended as far as Sri Vijaya, consolidated the advances made by their predecessors and went on to establish Chola hegemony in peninsular India.

The quasi-historical literary works Kalingattupparani and Kulotungancholan Pillai Tamizh were composed during their reign. Muvarula, and Kamba Ramayanam, the great epic, belong to this period. Neminatam, Viracholiyam and Nannul are noted grammatical works. Pandikkovai and Takkayagapparani are other important literary works composed during this later Chola period.

Traditionally, the area under the Chola dynasty in the Tamizh country is known as Chonadu or Cholanadu. Their core kingdom was concentrated in the Kaveri-fed delta called Cholamandalam. This term came to be corrupted as “Coromandel” in the European languages, which often referred to the entire eastern coast of South India.

The Chola kingdom expanded through military conquests to include present-day Pudukottai–Ramanathapuram districts and the Kongu country of the present-day western Tamil Nadu.

By the 11th century through invasions, Cholas extended their territory to Tondainadu or the northern portion of the Tamizh country, Pandinadu or the southern portions of the Tamizh country, Gangaivadi or portions of southern Karnataka and Malaimandalam, the Kerala territory.

The Cholas ventured overseas conquering the north-eastern parts of Sri Lanka, bringing it under their control and they called it Mummudi-Cholamandalam.

Rajaraja I is the most celebrated of the Chola kings. He engaged in naval expeditions and emerged victorious in the West Coast, Sri Lanka and conquered the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. The military victory of Raja Raja I over Sri Lanka led to its northern and eastern portions coming under the direct control of the Chola authority. Rajaraja I appointed a Tamil chief to govern the annexed regions and ordered a temple to be built. It is locally called Siva Devale (shrine of Siva).

The Chola official appointed in Sri Lanka built a temple in a place called Mahatitta. The temple is called Rajarajesvara.

Even as he was alive, Rajaraja I appointed his son Rajendra I as his heir apparent. For two years they jointly ruled the Chola kingdom. Rajendra I took part in the military campaigns of his father, attacking the Western Chalukyas.

Rajendra I conducted the most striking military exploit after his accession in 1023 by his expedition to northern India. He led the expedition up to the Godavari River and asked his general to continue beyond that place. The Gangaikonda Chozhapuram temple was built to commemorate his victories in North India.

The Chola invasions of Western Chalukya Empire, undertaken in 1003 by Rajaraja I and 1009 by Rajendra I, were also successful. Rajendra sent his son to ransack and ravage its capital Kalayani. The Dwarapala (door keeper) image he brought from Kalayani was installed at the Darasuram temple near Kumbakonam, which can be seen even today.

Rajendra I assumed the titles such as Mudikonda Cholan (the crowned Chola), Gangaikondan (conqueror of the Ganges), Kadaramkondan (conqueror of Kadaram) and Pandita Cholan (scholarly Cholan).

Chola rulers appointed Brahmins as spiritual preceptors or raja gurus (the kingdom’s guide). Rajaraja I and Rajendra I mention the names of raja gurus and Sarva-sivas in their inscriptions. Patronizing Brahmins was seen to enhance their prestige and legitimacy. Chola kings therefore granted huge estates of land to Brahmins as brahmadeyams and caturvedimangalams.

Cholas maintained a well-organized army. The army consisted of three conventional divisions: infantry, cavalry (kudirai sevagar) and the elephant corps (anaiyatkal).

In Chola army there were bowmen (villaligal), sword-bearers (valilar) and spearmen (konduvar). Two types of ranks in the army are also mentioned: the upper and the lower (perundanam and cirudanam).

Various locality groups functioned actively in the Chola period. These were bodies such as Urar, Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar and Nattar. They were relatively autonomous organizations of the respective groups. They are considered the building blocks using which the edifice of the Chola state was built.

The Urar, who were landholders in the village, acted as spokesmen in the Ur. The Urar were entrusted with the upkeep of temples, maintenance of the tanks and managing the water stored in them. They also discharged administrative functions of the state such as collection of revenue maintenance of law and order, and obeying the king’s orders.

Nagaram was a settlement of traders. However, skilled artisans engaged in masonry, ironsmithing, goldsmithing, weaving and pottery also occupied the settlement. It was represented by the Nagarattaar, who regulated their association with temples, which needed their financial assistance.

In the reign of Rajaraja I, Mamallapuram was administrated by a body called Maanagaram. Local goods were exchanged in Nagaram.

In order to promote trade, inland and sea way, Kulotunga revoked the collection of toll fee (Sungam). Hence he was conferred the title Sungam Thavirtha Chozhan.

Nattar functioned as pillars of the state structure under the Cholas. They discharged many of the administrative, fiscal and judicial responsibilities of the state. They held hereditary land rights and were responsible for remitting the tax from the respective nadu to the state.

Landholders of the nadu held the honorific titles such as asudaiyan (possessor of land), araiyan (leader) and kilavan (headman).

Two inscriptions (919 and 921) from a Brahmadeya (tax-free land gifted to Brahamans) called Uttaramerur (historically called Uttaramallur Caturvedimangalam) give details of the process of electing members to various committees that administered the affairs of a Brahmin settlement.

The prescribed qualifications for becoming a ward member were clearly spelt out in the Brahmadeya inscriptions. A male, above 35 but below 75, having a share of property and a house of his own, with knowledge of Vedas and bhasyas was considered eligible. The names of qualified candidates from each ward were written on the palm-leaf slips and put into a pot (kudavolai).

The Chola state collected land tax out of the agrarian surplus for its revenue. There was an elaborate “department of land revenue” known as puravuvari-tinaikkalam, with its chief called puravuvari-tinaikkalanayagam.

An important category of tax was kudimai. Kudimai was paid by the cultivating tenants to the government and to the landlords, the bearers of honorific titles such as udaiyan, araiyan and kilavar. The tax rates were fixed depending on the fertility of the soil and the status of the landholder. Opati were levied and collected by the king and local chiefs.

Vativaykkal, a criss-cross channel, is a traditional way of harnessing rain water in the Kavery delta. Vati runs in the north–south direction while vaykkal runs in the east–west direction. Technically, Vati is a drainage channel and a vaykkal is a supply channel.

The irrigation work done by Rajendra Chola I at Gangaikonda Chozhapuram was an embankment of solid masonry 16 miles long. Rajendra described it as his jalamayam jayasthambham, meaning “pillar of victory in water.

Paddy as tax was collected by a unit called Kalam (28 kg). Rajaraja I standardized the collection of tax. He collected 100 Kalam from the land of one veli.

The allotment of water is described as nirkkiintavaru (share of water as allotted).The water was released through kumizh (sluice) or talaivay (head-channel). Royal orders warned the people against the violation of water rights and encroachment of water resources gifted to the Brahmadeya settlements.

Village assemblies under the Cholas collected a tax called eriayam, which was utilized for repairing irrigation tanks. Sometimes local leaders like araiyan repaired and renovated irrigation tanks destroyed in a storm. There were instances of the water from a tank shared by villagers and the temples. A group of people who were in charge of kulam was called kulattar.

In the predominantly agrarian society prevailing during the Chola period landholding was the prime determinant of social status and hierarchy. The Brahmin landholders called brahmadeya-kilavars at the top Brahmadeya settlements with tax exemption were created, displacing (kudi neekki) the local peasants.

Rajaraja I is portrayed with his wives worshiping Lord Siva in Thanjavur Brihadishvarar temple. One of the titles of Rajaraja I is Siva Pada Sekaran one who clutches the foot of Lord Siva.

The Saiva canon the Thirumurai was codified after it was recovered by Nambi Andar Nambi. Oduvars and Padikam Paduvars were appointed to sing in the temples to recite Thirumurai daily in the temple premises. The singers of hymns were known as vinnappamseivar.

A highly evolved philosophical system called Saiva Siddhanta was founded during this period. The foundational text of this philosophy, Sivagnana Bodham, was composed by Meikandar. Fourteen texts, collectively called Saiva Siddhantha Sastram, form the core of this philosophy. In later times many Saiva monasteries emerged and expounded this philosophy.

The devotion of Chola rulers to Saivism became a strong passion in due course of time. Kulothunga II, for instance exhibited such a trait. The theological tussle was fierce between state religion Saivism, and Vaishnavism so much so that Vaishnavism was sidelined to the extent of its apostle Sri Ramanujar leaving the Chola country for Melkote in Karnataka.

Traditional dance items like kudak-kuthu and sakkaik-kuthu were portrayed in the form of sculptures and paintings in the temples in Kilapalivur, Tiruvorriyur. Nirutya and karna poses are shown in sculptural forms in the Thanjavur big temple.

In commemoration of his victory in North India, Rajendra I built Gangaikonda Chozhapuram on the model of Brihadishvarar temple in Thanjavur. The sculptures of Ardhanariswarar, Durga, Vishnu, Surya, and Cantesa Anugrahamurty are the best pieces of the idols of gods placed in the niches of the outer wall of sanctum.

The Grand Temple of Thanjavur, known as Rajarajisvaram and Brihadishvarar Temple, stands as an outstanding example of Chola architecture, painting, sculpture and iconography. This temple greatly legitimized Raja raja’s polity. The sanctum with a Vimana of 190 feet is capped with a stone weighing 80 tons.

Darasuram Temple, built by Rajaraja II (1146–1172), is yet another important contribution of the Cholas to temple architecture. Incidents from the Periyapuranam, in the form of miniatures are depicted on the base of the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) wall of the temple.

Anjuvannattar comprised West Asians, including Jews, Christians and Muslims. They were maritime traders and were settled all along the port towns of the west coast.

Manigramattar were busy with trade in the hinterland. They settled in interior towns like Kodumbalur Uraiyur, Kovilpatti, Piranmalai and others.

In due course both groups of Anjuvannnattar and Manigramattar merged and got incorporated under the banner of ainutruvar, disai-ayirattu-ainutruvar and valanciyar functioning through the head guild in Ayyavole in Karnataka.

The Ainutruvar guild controlled the maritime trade covering South-east Asian countries. Munai-santai (Pudukottai), Mylapore and Tiruvorriyur (Chennai), Nagapattinam, Vishakhapatnam and Krishnapattinam (south Nellore) became the centers of the maritime trade groups.

Rajendra I established a Vedic college at Ennayiram (South Arcot district). There were 340 students in this Vaishnava center, learning the Vedas, Grammar and Vedanta under 14 teachers. This example was later followed by his successors and, as a result, two more such colleges were founded, at Tribuvani near Pondicherry in 1048 and the other at Tirumukudal, Chengalpattu district, in 1067.

The Chola dynasty was paramount in South India from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries. By the end of the twelfth century, local chiefs began to grow in prominence, which weakened the centre. With frequent invasions of Pandyas, the once mighty empire, was reduced to the status of a dependent on the far stronger Hoysalas.

In 1264, the Pandyan ruler Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I sacked the Chola’s capital of Gangaikonda Chozhapuram. With Kanchipuram lost earlier to the Telugu Cholas, the remaining Chola territories passed into the hands of the Pandyan king.

The year 1279 marks the end of Chola dynasty when King Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last king Rajendra Chola III and established the rule by Pandyas.

Sambuvarayars were chieftains in the North Arcot and Chengalpattu regions during the reign of Chola kings, Rajathiraja and Kulothunga III. Though they were feudatories, they were found fighting sometimes on the side of their overlords and occasionally against them also.

From the late 13th century to the end of Pandya ascendency, they wielded power along the Palar river region. The kingdom was called Raja Ghambira Rajyam and the capital was in Padaividu.

The latter who ruled for 20 years was overthrown by Kumarakampana of Vijayanagar. It is after this campaign that Kumarakampana went further south, as far as Madurai, where he vanquished the Sultan of Madurai in a battle.

Pandyas were one of the muvendars that ruled the southern part of India, though intermittently, until the pre-modern times. Korkai, a town historically associated with pearl fisheries, is believed to have been their early capital and port. They moved to Madurai later.

Many early Tamil inscriptions of Pandyas have been found in Madurai and its surroundings. Madurai is mentioned as Matirai in these Tamil inscriptions, whereas Tamil classics refer to the city as Kudal, which means assemblage.

The Pandyas established their supremacy in South Tamil Nadu by the end of the sixth century CE. A few Copper plates form the source of our definite knowledge of the Pandyas from the seventh to the ninth century.

The Velvikkudi grant of Nedunjadayan is the most important among them. Copper plates inform the essence of royal orders, genealogical list of the kings their victory over the enemies, endowments and donations they made to the temples and the Brahmins.

Accounts of travellers such as Marco Polo, Wassaff and Ibn-Battuta are useful to know about political and socio-cultural developments of this period. Madurai Tala Varalaru, Pandik Kovai and Madurai Tiruppanimalai provide information about the Pandyas of Madurai.

Though pre-Pallavan literary works do not speak of Sangam as an academy, the term Sangam occurs in Iraiyanar Akapporul of late seventh or eighth century CE. The term Sangam, which means an academy, is used in late medieval literary works like Periya Puranam and Tiruvilaiyadal Puranam.

The territory of Pandyas is called Pandymandalam, Thenmandalam or Pandynadu, which lay in the rocky, hilly regions and mountain ranges except the areas fed by the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni. River Vellar running across Pudukottai region had been demarcated as the northern border of the Pandya country, while Indian Ocean was its southern border. The Western Ghats remained the border of the west while the Bay of Bengal formed the eastern border.

The revival of the Pandyas seems to have taken place after the disappearance of the Kalabhras. Once hill tribes, the Kalabhras had soon taken to a settled life, extending their patronage to Buddhists and Jains.

Kadunkon recovered Pandya territory from the Kalabhras according to copper plates, was succeeded by two others Sendan and Maravraman.

The Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadayan (Varaguna I) (756–815) was the donor of the Velvikkudi plates. He was also known as the greatest of his dynasty and successfully handled the Pallavas and the Cheras. He expanded the Pandya territory into Thanjavur, Tiruchirappalli, Salem and Coimbatore districts. He is also credited with building several Siva and Vishnu temples.

The Pandya king Srimara Srivallabha (815–862) invaded Ceylon and maintained his authority. However, he was subsequently defeated by Pallava Nandivarman III (846–869).

The successors of Varaguna II, Parantaka Viranarayana and Rajasimha II, could not stand up to the rising Chola dynasty under Parantaka I. Parantaka I defeated the Pandya king Rajasimha II who fled the country in 920CE.

Pandya kingdom became the leading Tamil dynasty in the thirteenth century. Madurai was their capital. Kayal was their great port. Marco Polo, the famous traveller from Venice, visited Kayal twice, in 1288 and in 1293. He tells us that this port town was full of ships from Arabia and China and bustling with business activities.

The illustrious ruler of the second Pandya kingdom was Sadaiyavarman (Jatavarman) Sundara Pandyan (1251–1268), who not only brought the entire Tamil Nadu under his rule, but also exercised his authority up to Nellore in Andhra. Under his reign, the Pandya state reached its zenith, keeping the Hoysalas in check. Sundara Pandyan conquered the Chera ruler, the chief of Malanadu, and extracted a tribute from him.

The elder son of Maravarman Khulasekharan, Sundara Pandyan III fled to Delhi and took refuge under the protection of Alauddin Khalji. This turn of events provided an opening for the invasion of Malik Kafur.

In Madurai, a Muslim state subordinate to the Delhi Sultan came to be established and continued until 1335 CE when the Muslim Governor of Madurai Jalaluddin Asan Shah threw off his allegiance and declared him as independent.

The Pandya kings are traditionally revered as Kudalkon, Kudal Nagar Kavalan, and Madurapura Paramesvaran. Titles of the later Pandyas in Sanskrit include Kodanda Raman, Kolakalan, Puvanekaviran, and Kaliyuga Raman.

The king issued royal order orally while majestically seated on the couches. It was documented by royal scribe called Tirumantira Olai.

The Royal palaces of Pandya rulers were called Tirumaligai and Manaparanan Tirumaligai. The prime minister was called Uttaramantri. The royal secretariat was known as Eluttu Mandapam. Akapparivara Mudalikal was the personal attendants of the kings. The titles of military commanders were Palli Velan, Parantakan Pallivelan, Maran Adittan and Tennavan Tamizhavel.

A unique political division in Pandy Mandalam is Kulakkil, area under irrigation tank. For instance, Madurai is described in an inscription as Madakkulakkil Madurai.

Kings and local chiefs created Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or Caturvedimangalam with irrigation facilities. These settlements were given royal names and names of the deities. Influential Brahmins had honorific titles such as Brahmmadhi Rajan and Brahmmaraiyan.

In the inscriptions, the traders are referred to as nikamattor, nanadesi, ticai-ayiratu-ainutruvar, ainutruvar, manikiramattar and patinen-vishyattar. They founded the trade guilds in Kodumpalur and Periyakulam.

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, horse trade was brisk. Marco Polo and Wassaff state that the kings invested in horses as there was a need of horses for ceremonial purposes and for fighting wars. Those who were trading in horses were called kudirai-chetti. They were active in maritime trade also.

On either side of the rivers Vaigai or Tamiraparni, canals leading to the tanks for irrigation were built. The Sendan Maran inscription of Vaigai river bed speaks of a sluice installed by him to distribute the water from the river. Sri Maran Srivallabha created a big tank, which is till now in use.

Iruppaikkuti-kilavan, a local chief built many tanks and repaired the tanks in disrepair. The actual landowning groups are described as the Pumipittirar. Historically they were locals and hence they were referred to as nattumakkal. The communal assembly of this group is Cittirameli-periyanattar.

Sluice is a device to distribute the water from the water resources like river, tank and lakes. It is called Kumili, madai and Madagu in inscriptions.

The important Tamil literary texts composed in the reign of the Pandyas were Tiruppavai, Tirvempavai, Tiruvasagam, Tirukkovai and Tirumantiram.

It is said that Pandyas were Jains initially and later adopted Saivism. Inscriptions and the sculptures in the temples attest to this belief. The early rock-cut cave temples were the outcrop of transitional stage in religion and architecture.

The prominent rock-cut cave temples created by the early Pandyas are found in Pillayarpatti, Tirumeyyam, Kuntrakkudi, Tiruchendur, Kalugumalai, Kanyakumari and Sittannavasal.

A 9th century inscription from Sittannavasal cave temple informs that the cave was authored by Ilam Kautamar. Another inscription of the same period tells us that Sri Maran Srivallaban renovated this temple.

The busiest port-towns were located all along the east coast of the Tamizh country. By establishing matrimonial link with Southeast Asian dynasties, Pandyas left an imprint in maritime trade activities.

Sadaiyavarman Sundara Pandyan was anointed in Srirangam temple, and to commemorate it, he donated an idol of Vishnu to the temple.