Introduction Of Political Science Online Test 11th Political Science Lesson 1 Questions in English

Politics was primarily concerned with the study of ethics. It further focused on the study of political ideas, political institutions and processes within states and the relations between states. But the last two centuries witnessed the study of politics concentrating on the conflict between liberty and equality.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle, the father of Political Science, considered the study of politics as a systematic inquiry to understand the truth about politics so as to explain the relationship between the State and the individual. He described and classified different political systems

Aristotle and Plato made immense contributions to the origin and development of the discipline. Plato analysed different political systems and Aristotle, closely following the trails of his teacher Plato, gave the analysis a historical perspective.

Politics was a matter of discussion in the churches during the medieval period as political power remained with the church under the Holy Roman Empire.

It was during the Italian Renaissance that Niccolo Machiavelli laid the foundations of modern political science through his emphasis on empirical observation and investigation of political structures and political behaviour from a secular perspective.

Politics, in the words of Harold Laswell, an American Political Scientist, is ‘Who gets What, When and How?’ This definition is based on the assumption that all societies exhibit sharp diversities with people pursuing different interests and values and hence there requires a mechanism through which the conflicting interests are reconciled.

For Karl Marx, politics was all about class conflict and political power and to David Easton politics meant ‘the authoritative allocation of values.

Authority is the moral or legal right and is the ability to control. It implies legitimacy, where power is exercised through established institutions and people willingly accept it as proper and just. Power, on the other hand, may or may not be legitimate.

As the majority is ruled by the minority, there is always an apprehension of the fairness of the government mechanism. Therefore, the exercise of power should be based on the foundations of justice.

D. G. Hitchner states that “The world around is clearly a political world. All mankind has been drawn into some political association through which men engage in operation and conflict”.

David Easton - Power is a relationship in which one group of persons are able to determine the actions of the others in the direction of the former’s own end Marshal Berman - Whoever you are or want to be, you may not be interested in politics, but politics is interested in you.

The Political Scientists who met at Paris in 1948 also found the term ‘Political Science’ more acceptable. It is not appropriate to use the two terms as synonyms, though a few still prefer to style the discipline also as politics.

Political Science as an autonomous discipline dates back to 1880 when John W. Burgess established a School of Political Science at the Columbia University. By 1920’s most of the leading Universities established an exclusive department for the study of Political Science.

After world war II scholars such as Woodrow Wilson and Frank Goodnow stressed more on the study of social facts over the study of static institutions.

There was a conscious effort by scientists such as Arthur Bentley to develop an objective, value-free analysis of politics and the principle impetus in this regard came during the 1920’s from the Chicago University.

Charles E. Merriam’s ‘Political Power’ and Harold Lasswell’s ‘Politics: Who Gets What, When, how?’ made the aspect of power the central theme of politics. Charles E. Merriam was the leading figure in this movement for empirical observation and measurement in political analysis.

Later, the 1960’s saw the emergence of a new trend known as ‘Post-Behaviouralism’. It was a reaction against the orthodoxy and dominance of the behavioural methods in the study of politics. The call for the development of this trend was given by David Easton, who ironically, was one of the leading advocates of the behavioural revolution

The modern political analysis began to rest upon the following four principles:1. the search for comprehensive scope 2. the search for realism 3. the search for precision 4. the search for intellectual order.

For Garner political science begins and ends with State. Leacock and Seeley see its dealing with government.

Bluntschli defines Political Science is a science which is concerned with the State, endeavors to understand and comprehend the State in its essential nature, various forms, manifestations and development.

The American Political Science Association founded in 1903 made efforts to separate the study of politics from other social sciences such as history and economics.

In the year 1948, the International Political Science Association mentioned the following as the Scope of Political Science;1. Political Theory 2. Political Institutions 3. Political Dynamics 4. International Relations.

Hence the scope of the discipline takes a quantum jump. Further the human nature will not remain static. Men Change and the scope of the discipline keep expanding. As the subject matter of political science includes enacting legislations that binds every one and every other activity its areas of inquiry.

Scholar such as Harold Laski argue that Political Science is the study of both state and government.

Some political theorists such as Bluntschli have restricted the scope of Political Science to the study of State alone as they believe the State includes also the government. On the other hand, other writers such as Karl Deutsch opines that Political Science deals only with the government.

Moreover, the study of International Relations which includes diplomacy, international laws and international organizations also come within the purview of Political Science. It is also a study of Public policy explaining the governmental and non-governmental responses to public issues.

An empirical study of political dynamics explains the political behaviour of individuals, groups and organizations. Most importantly, Political Science throws light on the relationship between individuals and the state.

It undertakes a comparative analysis of different constitutions and governments. The scope of the discipline also includes the study of contemporary forces in government and politics. This includes the study of political parties, interest groups and pressure groups.

There is a great debate on the scientific nature of Political Science. Writers like Auguste Comte and Maitland are of the opinion that political sciences lack scientific character as there is no consensus of opinion among experts on its nature, methods and approaches. Hence several scholars identify it with Arts.

On the other hand, some writers argue that Political Science is the science of state and government. Aristotle was the first one to call it as a supreme science.

Dr Garner defines science as knowledge relating to a particular subject acquired by a systematic study, observation or experience. If science is thus defined, conclusions in Political Science are also drawn after systematic study, observation or experience.

Though Political Science does not strictly adhere to the theory of cause and effect, certain political phenomena have their own cause and effect. For instance, poverty and unemployment are causes that can result in the consequence of revolution. Hence, some writers conclude that Political Science is undoubtedly a ‘Science’.

There are both traditional and modern or scientific approaches. The traditional approaches are highly speculative and normative and the modern approaches are more empirical and scientific in nature.

Four types of approach come under Traditional approach; 1. Philosophical approach 2. Historical approach 3. Legal approach 4. Institutional approach

Institutional approach is also known as the structural approach. It lays stress on the formal structures of the political organization such as legislature, executive and judiciary. The informal structures are also studied and a comparative study of the governmental systems are encouraged.

Historical approach throws light on the past and traces the origin and development of the political institutions. It seeks to study the role of individuals and their motives, accomplishments and failures in the past and its implications for the future.

Philosophical approach is the oldest approach to the study of politics. It is also known as speculative, metaphysical or ethical approach. The study of state, government and the political behaviour of man is intricately linked with the quest for achieving certain goals, morals or truths.

The study of politics is linked with the study of legal institutions created by the State for the maintenance of the political organization. As the State is engaged in the maintenance of law and order, the study of judicial institutions become the concern of political theorists.

Legal approach looks at the State as an organization primarily concerned with the creation and enforcement of law. However, critics argue that this approach has a narrow perspective.

Philosophical approach is criticized for being highly speculative and abstract.

Institutional approach is criticized for laying too much emphasis on formal and informal structures and ignoring the role of individual in those institutions.

The modern approach of political science is divided into five types. They are 1. Sociological approach 2. Psychological approach 3. Economic approach 4. Behavioural approach 5. Marxist approach

Economics was considered a branch of Political Science and in fact, the Greeks called Political Science by the name of Political Economy.

Psychological approach studies and explains political and social institutions through psychological laws. It assumes that the psychological analysis of political leaders reveals significant knowledge about politics. This approach ignores the sociological, legal and economic factors in the study of politics.

In Behavioural approach, the study of politics moved its focus from formalism and normativism to the study of political behaviour. However, critics argue that Behavioural approach approach is based on a false conception of scientific methods.

Marxist approach is basically different from the other modern approaches. It perceives State as an inevitable consequence of class contradictions. It assumes that there is a continuous interaction between the political and economic forces and separating one from the other is not possible.

John Seeley adds to it through his quote, ‘History without Political Science has no fruit, Political Science without History has no root’.

Historians have explained as to how groups with common economic interests have utilized the political process and environment to effect changes for their own benefit.

Philosophy is closely associated with ethics. Ethics deals with morality and formulates rules and regulations governing the behaviour of individuals in the society.

Political Science is also called as Policy Science and policies of the State cannot be formulated without the careful analysis of the social needs of the people. Political Science and Sociology are intimately related and it is Sociology that provides the basic information regarding the origin and evolution of state and other political institutions

The relationship between History and Political Science is well explained by Freeman as he says ‘History is past Politics and Politics is present History’.

For Karl Marx, politics was all about class conflict and political power and to David Easton politics meant ‘the authoritative allocation of values.

Psychology deals with all the aspects of human behaviour while Political Science deals only with the political behaviour of humans. Psychology throws light on why individuals and groups behave in a certain manner.

Barker rightly says, ‘The application of psychological clue to the riddles of human activity has indeed become the fashion of the day. If our forefathers thought biologically, we think psychologically’.

Though Kautilya, wrote his book in 300BCE that book concentrated more on the Political Economy, while the Thirukkural of Thiruvalluvar concentrated more on Political governance.

Political Science is closely related to Public Administration and in fact, the term ‘public’ denotes ‘government’ though Public Administration also includes the study of non-governmental organizations.

Arthashastra is a work on political economy and administrative governance written by Kautilya in 3rd century BCE.

The continuously changing and moving in political institutions from one stage to another stage is known as political dynamics.

Monarchy is a political system based upon the undivided sovereignty or rule of a single person who achieves his position through heredity.

Aristocracy is the government by a relatively small privileged class consisting of those felt to be best qualified to rule.

Totalitarianism refers to the subordination of all aspects of human life to the authority of the state.

Oligarchy is a government by the few, especially despotic power exercised by a small and privileged group for corrupt or selfish purposes.

The policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies is known as Imperialism.

According to Garris the Political Science deals with the origin, development, purpose and all political problems of the State.

Harold Laswell said that Political Science is an empirical enquiry in the study of shaping and sharing of power.

Gettel said that political science is the historical study of the past, analytical study of the present and ethical study of the future.

Seeley - Political Science investigates the phenomena of government as Political Economy deals with Wealth, Biology with Life, Algebra with Numbers and Geometry with Space and Magnitude. Bluntschli - Political Science is a science which is concerned with the State, endeavors to understand and comprehend the State in its essential nature, various forms, manifestations and development.

Aristotle believed that happiness was the most important thing in life. One of Aristotle’s most famous quotes is “...happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence...”