Taxonomy and Systematic Botany 11th Science Online Test

Theophrastus (372 – 287 BC), the Greek Philosopher known as “Father of Botany”. He named and described some 500 plants in his “De Historia Plantarum”.

Dioscorides (62 – 127 AD), Greek physician, described and illustrated in his famous “Materia medica” and described about 600 medicinal plants. From 16th century onwards Europe has witnessed a major-developments in the field of Taxonomy.

Carl Linnaeus ‘Species Plantarum’ (1753) laid strong foundation for the binomial nomenclature. Taxonomy is no more classical morphology-based discipline but become a dynamic and transdisciplinary subject, making use of many branches of botany.

Branches of botany are such as Cell Biology, Physiology, Biochemistry, Ecology, Pharmacology and also Modern Biotechnology, Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics. It helps to understand biodiversity, wildlife, forest management of natural resources for sustainable use of plants and eco restoration.

The word taxonomy is derived from Greek words “taxis” (arrangement) and “nomos” (rules or laws). Taxonomy is defined as as “the science dealing with the study of classification including the bases, principles, rules and procedures”.

Simpson (1961) defined Systematics as, “Scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and all relationships among them”. Though there are two terms (Taxonomy and Systematics) are used in an interchangeable way, they differ from each other.

Governs the practices of naming, describing, identifying and specimen preservation.

Species is the lowest of classification and shows the high level of similarities among the organisms. For example, Helianthus annuus and Helianthus tuberosus. These two species differ in their morphology. Both of them are herbs but Helianthus tuberosus is a perennial herb.

Family comprises a number of genera which share some similarities among them. Example: Asteraceae.

Broad field of biology that studies the diversification of species.

Genus consists of multiple species which have similar characters but differ from the species of another genus. Example: Helianthus, Tridax.

Kingdom is the highest level or rank of the classification. Example: Plantae.

Order includes group of families which show less similarities among them. Class consists of group of orders which share few similarities. Division is the next level of classification that consists of number of classes. Example: Magnoliophyta.

Species is the fundamental unit of taxonomic classification. Species is a group of individual organisms which have the following characters. 1. A population of organisms which closely resemble each other more than the other population. 2. They descend from a common ancestor. 3. In sexually reproducing organisms, they interbreed freely in nature, producing fertile offspring

Species concepts can be classified into two general groups. Concept emphasizing process of evolution that maintains the species as a unit and that can result in evolutionary divergence and speciation. Another concept emphasises the product of evolution in defining a species. They are 1. Process of evolution – Biological Species 2. Product of evolution – Morphological Species and Phylogenetic Species.

When the individuals are similar to one another in one or more features and different from other such groups, they are called morphological species.

According to Ernest Mayr 1963, “biological species are groups of populations that interbreed and are reproductively isolated from other such groups in nature”.

Phylogenetic Species concept was developed by Meglitsch (1954), Simpson (1961) and Wiley (1978). Wiley defined phylogenetic species as “an evolutionary species is a single lineage of ancestor descendent populations which maintains its identity from other such lineages which has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate”.

Assigning name for a plant is known as Nomenclature. This is based on the rules and recommendations of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. ICBN deals with the names of existing (living) and extinct (fossil) organisms.

The elementary rule of naming of plants was first proposed by Linnaeus in 1751 in his Philosophia Botanica. In 1813 a detailed set of rules regarding plant nomenclature was given by A.P. de Candolle in his famous work “Theorie elementaire de la botanique”. Then the present ICBN was evolved by following the same rules of Linnaeus, A.P. de Candolle and his son Alphonse de Candolle.

ICBN due to specific reasons and in order to separate plant kingdom from other organisms, is redesignated as ICN. The International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne in July 2011 brought this change. The ICN stands for International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi and Plants.

Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological and bacteriological nomenclature.

Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated as Latin regardless of their derivation. The rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless expressly limited.

ICN has formulated a set of rules and recommendations dealing with the botanical name of plants. International Botanical Congress is held at different places every six years. Proposals for nomenclatural changes and changes in rules are discussed and implemented. Changes are published in their website.

Anamorph – Asexual reproductive stage of fungus. Teleomorph – Sexual reproductive stage of fungus.

19th International Botanical Congress was held in Shenzhen in China in 2017.

“One fungus, one name” and “one fossil one name” are important changes, the concept of anamorph and teleomorph (for fungi) and morphotaxa (for fossils) have been eliminated. (Previously, sexual and asexual stages of the fungus/ fossils were provided with different names).

Vernacular names are known as common names. They are very often descriptive and poetic references to plants. Common name refers to more than one plant or many plants may have same common name. These names are regional or local and are not universal. Example: Albizia amara. L belongs to Mimosaceae is called as Usilai in South Tamil Nadu and Thurinji in North Tamil Nadu.

Each and every taxon as per the ICN (species, genus, family etc) can have only one correct scientific name. Scientific name of a species is always a binomial. These names are universally applied. Example: Oryza sativa L. is the scientific name of paddy.

Binomial nomenclature was first introduced by Gaspard Bauhin and it was implemented by Carolus Linnaeus. Scientific name of a species consists of two words and according to binomial nomenclature, the first one is called genus name and second one is specific epithet. Example: Mangifera indica. Mangifera is a genus name and indica is specific epithet. This system is in vogue even now.

Author citation refers to valid name of the taxa accompanied by the author’s name who published the name validly. Example: Solanum nigrum L. There are two types of author citation. They are Single author (Example: Pithecellobium cinereum Benth) and Multiple author (Example: Delphinium viscosum Hook. f. et Thomson).

Royal Botanic Garden Kew- England is a non- departmental public body in the United Kingdom. It is the largest botanical garden in the world, established in 1760, but officially opened in the year 1841. Plant collections include Aquatic garden, Arboretum with 14,000 trees, Bonsai collection, Cacti collection and Carnivorous plant collection.

Taxonomic aids are the tools for the taxonomic study. Some techniques, procedures and stored information that are useful in identification and classification of organisms are called taxonomical aids. They are required in almost all branches of biological studies for their proper identification and for finding their relationship with others.

Some of the taxonomical aids are keys, flora, revisions, monograph, catalogues, herbarium, botanical gardens etc.

In true sense all gardens are not botanical gardens. Botanical gardens are centres for collection of plants in their various stages of living. Gardens existed for growing ornamental plants for aesthetic value, religious and status reasons. The famous “hanging gardens” of Babylon in Mesopotamia is an example.

For the purpose of science and education the first garden was maintained by Theophrastus in his public lecture hall at Athens. Botanical garden contains special plant collections such as cacti, succulent, green house, shade house, tropical, alpine and exotic plants

First modern botanical garden was established by Luca Ghini (1490-1556) a professor of Botany at Pisa, Italy in 1544. Worldwide there are about 1800 botanical gardens and arboreta.

Gardens with aesthetic value which attract a large number of visitors. For example, the Great Banyan Tree (Ficus benghalensis) in the Indian Botanical Garden at Kolkata. Gardens have a wide range of species and supply taxonomic material for botanical research.

Herbaria are store houses of preserved plant collections. Plants are preserved in the form of pressed and dried specimens mounted on a sheet of paper. Herbaria act as a centre for research and function as sources of material for systematic work. Herbarium Specimen is defined as a pressed and dried plant sample that is permanently glued or strapped to a sheet of paper along with a documentation label.

Preparation of herbarium specimen includes the following steps. 1. Plant collection: Field collection, Liquid preserved collection, Living collection, Collection for molecular studies. 2. Documentation of field site data 3. Preparation of plant specimen 4. Mounting herbarium specimen 5. Herbarium labels. 6. Protection of herbarium sheets against mold and insects.

Kew Garden is situated in South West London that houses the “largest and most diverse botanical and mycological collections in the world” founded in the year 1840. Living collection includes more than 30,000 different kinds of plants. While herbarium which is one of the largest in the world has over seven million preserved plant specimens.

World’s smallest water lily Nymphaea thermarum was saved from extinction when it was grown from seed at Kew in 2009.

Explanation
Komarov Botanical Institute, St.Petersburg (Leningrad), Russia.

Taxonomic entities are classified in three ways. They are artificial classification, natural classification and phylogenetic classification.

On 13 February 1890, a survey was formally constituted and designated as the Botanical Survey of India. After independence, the need was felt for a more comprehensive documentation of the country’s plant resources to boost the economy. Padmashree Dr.E.K.Janaki Ammal was appointed as officer on special Duty on 14th Oct 1952. Then reorganization plan was finally approved by the Govt. of India on 29 March 1954.

Calcutta is the headquarters of BSI (Botanical Survey of India). Jammu Tavi Botanical Garden has been named after Dr. E. K. Janaki Ammal.

1. Madras Herbarium BSI campus, Coimbatore – 1955, 2. Central National Herbarium West Bengal – 1795, 3. Presidency College Herbarium, Chennai – 1844 and 4. Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala – 1979.

Taxonomists have assigned a method of classifying organisms which are called ranks. These taxonomical ranks are hierarchical. The scheme of classification has to be flexible, allowing newly discovered living organisms to be added where they fit best.

Carolus Linnaeus (1707 -1778) was a great Swedish Botanist and said to be the “Father of Taxonomy.” He outlined an artificial system of classification in “Species Plantarum” in 1753, wherein he listed and described 7,300 species and arranged in 24 classes mostly on the basis of number, union (adhesion and cohesion), length, and distribution of stamens.

Carl Linnaeus system of classification is also known as sexual system of classification. The classes were further subdivided on the basis of carpel characteristics into orders.

Totally unrelated plants were kept in a single group, whereas closely related plants were placed in widely separated groups. Example: Zingiberaceae of monocotyledons and Anacardiaceae of dicotyledonous were placed under the class Monandria since these possess single stamens.

An approach to a natural system of classification sprouted in France. The first scheme of classification based on overall similarities was presented by Antoine Laurent de Jessieu in 1789.

A widely followed natural system of classification considered the best was proposed by two English botanist George Bentham (1800 – 1884) and Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817–1911). The classification was published in a three volume work as “Genera Plantarum” (1862–1883) describing 202 families and 7569 genera and 97,205 species.

In Natural system the seeded plants were classified into 3 major classes such as Dicotyledonae, Gymnospermae and Monocotyledonae.

Gymnospermae Plants that contain naked seeds come under this class. Gymnospermae includes three families – Gnetaceae, Coniferae and Cycadaceae.

Polypetalae: Plants with free petals and dichlamydeous flowers come under polypetalae.

Polypetalae is further divided into three series – Thalamiflorae, Disciflorae and Calyciflorae.

Disciflorae: Flowers having prominent disc shaped thalamus with superior ovary come under this series. It includes 4 orders and 23 families.

Plants with united petals, which are either partially or completely fused to one another and dichlamydeous are placed under Gamopetalae.

Gamopetalae is further divided into three series – Inferae, Heteromerae and Bicarpellatae.

Heteromerae: The flowers are hypogynous, superior ovary and with more than two carpels. Heteromerae includes 3 orders and 12 families

Plants with incomplete flowers either apetalous or with undifferentiated calyx and corolla are placed under Monochlamydeae. The sepals and petals are not distinguished and they are called perianth. Sometimes both the whorls are absent. Monochlamydeae includes 8 series and 36 families.

The Monocotyledonae has 7 series and 34 families.

The publication of the Origin of Species (1859) by Charles Darwin has given stimulus for the emergence of phylogenetic system of classification.

One of the earliest phylogenetic system of classification of the entire plant Kingdom was jointly proposed by two German botanists Adolph Engler ( 1844 -1930) and Karl A Prantl (1849 – 1893). They published their classification in a monumental work “Die Naturelichen Pflanzen Familien” in 23 volumes (1887-1915).

In Phylogenetic system of classification, the plant kingdom was divided into 13 divisions. The first 11 divisions are Thallophytes, twelfth division is Embryophyta Asiphonogama (plants with embryos but no pollen tubes; Bryophytes and Pteridophytes) and the thirteenth division is Embryophyta Siphonogama (plants with embryos and pollen tubes) which includes seed plants.

Arthur Cronquist (1919 – 1992) an eminent American taxonomist proposed phylogenetic classification of flowering plants based on a wide range of taxonomic characters including anatomical and phytochemical characters of phylogenetic importance.

Arthur Cronquist has presented his classification in 1968 in his book titled “The evolution and classification of flowering plants.” His classification is broadly based on the Principles of phylogeny that finds acceptance with major contemporary authors.

Cronquist classified the angiosperms into two main classes Magnoliopsida (=dicotyledons) and Liliopsida (= monocotyledons). There are 6 subclasses, 64 orders, 320 families and about 165,000 species in Magnoliopsida, whereas in Liliopsida there are 5 sub classes, 19 orders, 66 families and about 50,000 species.

The most recent updated version, APG IV (2016) recognised 64 orders and 416 families. Of these, 416 families 259 are represented in India. The outline of APG IV classification is given below. Angiosperms are classified into three clades early angiosperms, monocots and eudicots. Early angiosperms are classified into 8 orders and 26 families (ANA clade + magnoliids + Chloranthales). APG system is yet to percolate into the Indian botanical curriculum.

A significant number of major herbaria, including Kew are changing the order of their collections in accordance with APG. A recent photographic survey of the plants of USA and Canada is organized according to the APG III system. In UK, the latest edition of the standard flora of the British Isles written by Stace is based on the APG III system. The influential world checklist of selected plant families (also from kew) is being updated to the APG III system.

Proteins, amino acids, nucleic acids, peptides etc. are the most studied chemicals in chemotaxonomy. Chemotaxonomy is the scientific approach of classification of plants on the basis of their biochemical constituents.

Explanation
As proteins are more closely controlled by genes and less subjected to natural selection, it has been used at all hierarchical levels of classification starting from the rank of ‘variety’ up to the rank of division in plants. Aims of chemotaxonomy 1. To develop taxonomic characters which may improve existing system of plant classification. 2. To improve present day knowledge of phylogeny of plants

In Chemotaxonomy chemical characters can be divided into three main categories. 1. Easily visible characters like starch grains, silica. 2. Characters detected by chemical tests like phenolics, oil, fats, waxes. 3. Proteins.

Biosystematics is an “Experimental, ecological and cytotaxonomy” through which life forms are studied and their relationships are defined. The term biosystematics was introduced by Camp and Gilly in 1943. Many authors feel Biosystematics is closer to Cytogenetics and Ecology and much importance given not to classification but to evolution

To involve any type of data gathering based on modern concepts and not only on morphology and anatomy.

Chromosomes are the carriers of genetic information. Increased knowledge about the chromosomes have been used for extensive biosystematic studies and resolving many taxonomic problems.

Utilization of the characters and phenomena of cytology for the explanation of taxonomic problem is known as cytotaxonomy or karyotaxonomy. The characters of chromosome such as number, size, morphology and behaviour during meiosis have proved to be of taxonomic value.

The classification of very similar plants by means of differences in the proteins they contain, to solve taxonomic problems is called serotaxonomy.

Systematic serology or serotaxonomy had its origin towards the end of twentieth century with the discovery of serological reactions and development of the discipline of immunology. Smith (1976) defined it as “the study of the origins and properties of antisera”.

Molecular taxonomy helps in establishing the relationship of different plant groups at DNA level. It unlocks the treasure chest of information on evolutionary history of organisms.

The results of a molecular phylogenetic analysis are expressed in the form of a tree called phylogenetic tree. Different molecular markers like allozymes, mitochondrial DNA, microsatellites, RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism), RAPD (Random amplified polymorphic DNA), AFLPs (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism), single nucleotide polymorphism- (SNP), microchips or arrays are used in analysis.

DNA barcoding is a taxonomic method that uses a very short genetic sequence from a standard part of a genome. The genetic sequence used to identify a plant is known as “DNA tags” or “DNA barcodes”.

Paul Hebert in 2003 proposed ‘DNA barcoding’ and he is considered as ‘Father of barcoding’. DNA barcoding techniques require a large database of sequences for comparison and prior knowledge of the barcoding region. However, DNA barcoding is a helpful tool to determine the authenticity of botanical material in whole, cut or powdered form.

The gene region that is being used as an effective barcode in plants is present in two genes of the chloroplast, matK and rbcL, and have been approved as the barcode regions for plants. Sequence of unknown species can be matched from submitted sequence in GenBank using Blast (web-programme for searching the closely related sequence).

RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) is a molecular method of genetic analysis that allows identification of taxa based on unique patterns of restriction sites in specific regions of DNA. It refers to differences between taxa in restriction sites and therefore the lengths of fragments of DNA following cleavage with restriction enzymes.

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) is similar to that of identifying RFLPs in that a restriction enzyme is used to cut DNA into numerous smaller pieces, each of which terminates in a characteristic nucleotide sequence due to the action of restriction enzymes. AFLP is largely used for population genetics studies, but has been used in studies of closely related species and even in some cases, for higher level cladistic analysis

Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) is a method to identify genetic markers using a randomly synthesized primer that will anneal (recombine (DNA) in the double stranded form) to complementary regions located in various locations of isolated DNA. If another complementary site is present on the opposing DNA strand at a distance that is not too great (within the limits of PCR) then the reaction will amplify this region of DNA.

It helps to identify a very large number of species of plants and animals by the use of conserved molecular sequences.

This system is based on the observation of a few samples/ individuals.

It is called Neosystematics or Biosystematics or Omega (Ω) taxonomy.

The method of classifying organisms into monophyletic group of a common ancestor based on shared apomorphic characters is called cladistics (from Greek, klados – branch).

The outcome of a cladistic analysis is a cladogram, a tree-shaped diagram that represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic relationships. Earlier generated cladograms were largely on the basis of morphological characters, but now genetic sequencing data and computational software’s are commonly used in phylogenetic analysis.

Cladistics accept only monophyletic groups. Paraphyletic and polyphyletic taxa are occasionally considered when such taxa conveniently treated as one group for practical purposes. Example: dicots, sterculiaceae. Polyphyletic groups are rejected by cladistics.

Paraphyletic group; Taxon that includes an ancestor but not all of the descendants of that ancestor.
Polyphyletic group; Taxa that includes members from two different lineages.

Root: Tap root system, roots are nodulated, have tubercles containing nitrogen – fixing bacteria (Rhizobium leguminosarum) Stem: Aerial, herbaceous, woody (Dalbergia) twining or climbing (Clitoria). Leaf: Leaf simple or unifoliate (Desmodium gangeticum) bifoliate (Zornia diphylla,), Trifoliate (Lablab purpureus), alternate, stipulate, leaf base, pulvinate, reticulate venation terminal leaflet modifies into a tendril in Pisum sativum.

Corolla: Petals 5, apopetalous, unequal and papilionaceous, vexillary or descendingly imbricate aestivation, all petals have claw at the base. Fabaceae belongs to Dicot families.

The outer most petal is large called standard petal or vexillum, Lateral 2 petals are lanceolate and curved. They are called wing petals or alae. Anterior two petals are partly fused and are called keel petals or carina which encloses the stamens and pistil.

Androecium: Stamens 10, diadelphous, usually 9+1 (Clitoria ternatea). The odd stamen is posterior in position. In Aeschynomene aspera, the stamens are fused to form two bundles each containing five stamens (5) + (5). Stamens are monadelphous and dimorphic ie., 5 stamens have longer filaments and other 5 stamens have shorter filaments thus the stamens are found at two levels and the shape of anthers also varies in (Crotalaria verrucosa). Anthers are dithecous, basifixed and dehiscing longitudinally.

Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, unilocular, ovary superior, with two alternating rows of ovules on marginal placentation. Style simple and bent, stigma flattened or feathery.

The characteristic fruit of Fabaceae is a legume (Pisum sativum), sometimes indehiscent and rarely a lomentum (Desmodium).

In Arachis hypogea the fruit is geocarpic (fruits develops and matures under the soil). After fertilization the stipe of the ovary becomes meristematic and grows down into the soil. This ovary gets buried into the soil and develops into fruit. Seed of Fabaceae: Endospermic or non-endospermic (Pisum sativum), mostly reniform.

Habit: Twining climber.

Leaf characteristic of Clitoria ternatea: Imparipinnately compound, alternate, stipulate showing reticulate venation. Leaflets are stipellate. Petiolate and stipels are pulvinated

Flower: Bracteate, bracteolate, bracteoles usually large, pedicellate, heterochlamydeous, complete, bisexual, pentamerous, zygomorphic and hypogynous.

Petals 5, white or blue apopetalous, irregular papilionaceous corolla showing descendingly imbricate aestivation.
Sepals 5, synsepalous, green showing valvate aestivation. Odd sepal is anterior in position.

Arachis hypogea (ground nut) is a oil plant. Oil extracted from the seeds is edible and used for cooking.

Cajanus cajan (Pigeon Pea) Phaseolus vulgaris (French bean) Cicer arietinum (Chick pea / Channa) Vigna mungo (black gram) Vigna radiata (green gram) Vigna unguiculata (cow pea) Glycine max (soya bean) Macrotyloma uniflorum (Horse gram).

Lablab purpureus (field bean), Sesbania grandiflora (agathi), Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (cluster bean) are Food plants.

Dalbergia latifolia (rose wood), Pterocarpus santalinus (red sandalwood), P.marsupium are timber pant used for making furniture, cabinet articles and as building material. Pongamia pinnata is oil plant, Pongam oil has medicinal value and is used in the preparation of soap.

Crotalaria juncea (sunhemp) and Sesbania sesban (aegyptiaca) are Fibre plant Used for making ropes

Aeschynomene aspera is Pith Plant Used for packing, handicraft and fishing floats.

Indigofera tinctoria (Avuri) – Indigo dye obtained from leaves is used to colour printing and in paints, Clitoria ternatea – Blue dye is obtained and Butea monosperma – Natural dye.

The aerial parts of Galega officinalis (Fabaceae) contains Metformin (dimethyl biguanide). It is now reputed to be the most widely prescribed agent in the treatment of diabetes all over the world.

The attractive seeds of Adenanthera pavonina (Family: Caesalpiniaceae) have been used as units of weight for the measures of gold throughout India. The attractive seeds of Adenanthera pavonina (Family: Caesalpiniaceae) have been used as units of weight for the measures of gold throughout India.

Family Solanaceae includes about 88 genera and about 2650 species, of these Solanum is the largest genus of the family with about 1500 species. Plants are worldwide in distribution but more abundant in South America.

Leaves: Alternate, simple, rarely pinnately compound (Solanum tuberosum and Lycopersicon esculentum, exstipulate, opposite or sub-opposite in upper part, unicostate reticulate venation. Yellowish verbs present in Solanum tuberosum

In Family Solanaceae Inflorescence: Generally axillary or terminal cymose (Solanum) or solitary flowers (Datura stramonium). Extra axillary scorpiod cyme called rhiphidium (Solanum americanum) solitary and axillary (Datura and Nicotiana) umbellate cyme (Withania somnifera).

Androecium: Stamens 5, epipetalous, filaments usually unequal in length, stamens only 2 in Schizanthus (others 3 are reduced to staminode), Anthers dithecous, dehisce longitudinally or poricidal.

Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous obliquely placed, ovary superior, bilocular but looks tetralocular due to the formation of false septa, numerous ovules in each locule on axile placentation.

Seed in Family Solanaceae plants are Endospermous. Fruit: A capsule or berry. (Datura & Petunia, Lycopersicon esculentum, Capsicum).

Stem: Stem is hollow, green and herbaceous with strong odour.

Calyx: Sepals 5, green synsepalous showing valvate aestivation. Calyx is mostly persistent, odd sepal is posterior in position.

Corolla: petals 5, greenish white, sympetalous, plicate (folded like a fan) showing twisted aestivation, funnel shaped with wide mouth and 10 lobed.

Androecium: Stamens 5, free from one another, epipetalous, alternipetalous and are inserted in the middle of the corolla tube. Anthers are basifixed, dithecous, with long filament, introse and longitudinally dehiscent. Fruit: Spinescent capsule opening by four apical valves with persistent calyx. Seed: Endospermous.

From Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) roots a powerful alkaloid ‘atropine’ obtained from root is used in belladonna plasters, tinctures etc. for relieving pain and also for dialating pupils of eyes for eye –testing.

Nicotiana tabaccum (tobacco) leaves are dried and made into tobacco, used in cigarette, beedi, hukkah, pipes as well as for chewing and snuffing, alkaloids like nicotine, nornicotine and anabasin are present in tobacco.

Solanum tuberosum (potato), Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Solanum melongena (brinjal) Capsicum annuum (bell peppers & chilli papers) C. frutescens, Physalis peruviana (cape gooseberry).

Datura stramonium is used as drug obtained from the leaves and roots of this is used to treat asthma and whooping cough.

Solanum trilobatum and Withania somnifera are medicinal plant Used to treat cough and in curing cough and rheumatism. Cestrum diurnum is ornamental plant.

Distribution: Liliaceae are fairly large family comprising about 15 genera and 550 species. Members of this family are widely distributed over most part of the world. Root: Adventitious and fibrous, and typically contractile

Perianth: Tepals 6 biseriate arranged in two whorls of 3 each, apotepalous or rarely syntepalous as in Aloe. Usually petaloid or sometimes sepaloid, odd tepal of the outer whorl is anterior in position, valvate or imbricate, tepals more than six in Paris quadrifolia.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has been declared 2016 as the year for pulses, to make people more aware of the nutritional value of pulses.

In Liliaceae family Fruit usually a septicidal or loculicidal capsule or a berry as in Asparagus and Smilax.

Androecium: Stamens 6, arranged in 2 whorls of 3 each, rarely stamens are 3 (Ruscus), 4 in Maianthemum, or up to 12, apostamenous, opposite to the tepals, sometimes epitepalous; filaments distinct or connate, anthers dithecous, basifixed or versatile, extrose, or introse, dehiscing usually by vertical slit and sometimes by terminal pores; rarely synstamenous (Ruscus).

Fruit: A loculicidal capsule and Seed: Endospermous.

Androecium: Stamens 6, arranged in two whorls of three each, epitepalous, apostamenous /free and opposite to tepals. Anthers dithecous, basifixed, introse, and dehiscing longitudinally. Gynoecium: Tricarpellary and syncarpous. Ovary superior, trilocular with two ovules in each locule on axile placentation. Style simple, slender with simple stigma.

In APG classification, Allium cepa is placed under the family Amaryllidaceae.

Flower: Small, white, bracteate, ebracteolate, pedicellate, complete, trimerous, actinomorphic and hypogynous. Flowers are protandrous.

Allium cepa, Allium sativum and Asparagus officinalis are food pants.

Gelatinous glycoside called aloin from succulent leaves are used in soothing lotions, piles and inflammations, hemorrhoidal salves and shampoos.

Medicinal oil is prepared from the root of Asparagus racemosus is used for nervous and rheumatic complaints and also in skin diseases.

Colchichum luteum roots are used in the treatment of gout and rheumatism.

Gloriosa superba tubers helpful in promoting labour pains in women.

Phormium tenax is fibre yielding plant used for cordage, fishing net, mattings, twines.

Urginea indica bulbs is used for killing rats (Raticides)

Agapanthus africanus (African Lily), Gloriosa superba (Malabar glory lily), Lilium giganteum, Ruscus aculeatus (Butchers Broom), Yucca alcifolia and Y.gloriosa.

Veratrum album bulbs are used as insectices.

Allium sativum bulbs are Used as condiment and also good for heart.

Colchicum luteum produce Colchicine (alkaloid) used to induce polyploidy.

In Yucca the cross-pollination is carried out by special moth, Pronuba yuccasella. Fully opened flowers emit perfumes and are visited by the female moth, especially during nights. This moth collects a lot of pollen grains from one flower and visits another flower. Life history of this moth is intimately associated with the pollination mechanism in Yucca.

Botanical survey of India explores and documents biodiversity all over India. It has 11 regional centres in India. Herbarium preparation includes plant collection, documentation of field data, preparation of plant specimens, mounting and labelling. There are several national and international herbaria.